Joint research and training initiatives between East African and North American Universities

Joint research and training initiatives between East African and North American Universities

John Baligwamunsi Kaneene^1,&, Margaret Loy Khaitsa², John David Kabasa³, Florence Wakoko⁴, William Sischo⁵, Douglas Freeman⁶, Claire Card⁶, Teresa Bergholz⁷, Sheela Ramamoorthy⁷, Ayele Teshome⁸, Jesca Nakavuma³, Samuel Majalijja³, Stevens Kisaka³, Paul Ssajjakambwe³, Sam Okech³, Micheal Muleme³, Sylvia Angubua Baluka³, Herbert Kazoora⁹, Patrick Vudriko³

¹Michigan State University, Center for Comparative Epidemiology, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, 736 Wilson Road, Room A-109, East Lansing, Michigan, 48917, USA, ²Mississippi State University, Department of Pathobiology and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA, ³Makerere University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources & Bio-security, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda, ⁴Columbus State University, Department of Criminal Justice & Sociology, 4225 University Avenue, Columbus, Georgia, 31907, USA, ⁵Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Paul G Allen School for Global Animal Health, PO Box 647090, Pullman, Washington, 99164, USA, ⁶University of Saskatchewan, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, 52 Campus Dr, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada, ⁷North Dakota State University, Department of Microbiological Sciences, Department 7690, PO Box 6050, Fargo, North Dakota, 58108, USA, ⁸Purdue University, Biomass Logistics and Particle Technology, 225 W University St, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, USA, ⁹African Field Epidemiology Network, Wings B & C, Ground Floor, Lugogo House, Plot 42, Lugogo By-pass, Lugogo, PO Box 12874, Kampala, Uganda

^&Corresponding author
John Baligwamunsi Kaneene, Michigan State University, Center for Comparative Epidemiology, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, 736 Wilson Road, Room A-109, East Lansing, Michigan, 48917, USA

Introduction    

In the last twenty five years, African Universities have been under pressure to increase their research productivity. Such increase in research productivity will require these institutions to secure extramural grants, hire faculty with training and skills in research or train current faculty members in skills in grant writing, conducting research, and publishing their work in refereed journals. One way for the African universities to develop the aforementioned skills and abilities in research is to work in partnerships with other institutions in developed countries, such as the United State of America (USA) and Canada. The overall goal of the research and training (R & T) activities “Capacity building in Integrated Management of Transboundary Animal Diseases and Zoonoses (CIMTADZ)” project was to develop mutually beneficial and sustainable R & T collaborations. The specific objectives were to: 1) Improve laboratory capabilities in selected East African Universities via the introduction of reagents and standard operating procedures; 2) Train faculty, graduate, and undergraduate students in the procedures and ethical conduct of research; 3) Train selected students up to MS and /or PhD levels using transboundary and zoonotic diseases (TADZ) as models for their research work; 4) Train technologists and field research workers; 5) Conduct both basic and applied research; 6) Train faculty and students in the art of grant writing; 7) Train faculty in financial management of grants; and 8) Train young faculty and students in strategies for publishing papers in peer-reviewed journals. East African universities participating in the R & T activities include: Makerere University (Uganda), Sokoine University of Agriculture (Tanzania), University of Nairobi (Kenya), Mekelle University (Ethiopia), and National University of Rwanda (Rwanda). Participating Universities from North America include: Michigan State University, North Dakota State University, Mississippi State University, Washington State University, Columbus State University, Kansas State University, University of Minnesota, and University of Saskatchewan.

Overview     

Research activities

Research activities included conducting research on major zoonotic and transboundary animal diseases in East Africa. Examples of these diseases include: brucellosis, tuberculosis, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), Shiga-toxin Producing Escherichia coli (STEC), Antimicrobial Resistance of Salmonella enterica, Trypanasomiasis, foodborne diseases, tick borne diseases, rabies, and mastitis. Non-specific research activities included: studies of surveillance systems used in domestic animals, wildlife, and humans, hygiene practices and food contamination in food service facilities. Other research activities included: improving laboratory capabilities by providing research equipment, developing of molecular diagnostic tests, and establishment of standard operating procedures.

Training

Long term training programs: training included students up to MS and /or PhD levels using transboundary and zoonotic diseases in their research work.

Targeted courses: there were 9 targeted courses in short duration: 1) training of faculty, graduate and undergraduate students in the procedures and ethical conduct of research, 2) training faculty and students in the art and science of grant writing, 3) training students in integrated methods of Service Learning, 4) training students in communication and diplomacy using the Model African Union, 5) training faculty and graduate students in designing and conducting scientifically valid studies, 6) training young faculty and students in presenting research findings at conferences and publishing papers in peer-reviewed journals, 7) training selected students up to MS and /or PhD levels using TADZ) in their research, 8) training faculty in financial management of grants, including accountability, and 9) training of junior faculty from Makerere University at USA Universities. Several training sessions on outbreak investigation were conducted, including the use of outbreak results to formulate hypotheses on disease transmission dynamics. In addition, junior faculty members from Makerere University were given opportunities to spend three months at two USA Universities (Michigan State University and Mississippi State Universities) for research training.

Other training related experiences: the other training experiences included: study abroad course “Tropical Veterinary Medicine and One Health”, Global competencies and multicultural learning environments, One Health competencies of working in an interdisciplinary environment, Special Experiential Learning (SEL), model African union simulation, policy development and leadership.

Results     

Research

Zoonotic diseases: two studies were conducted on the epidemiology and diagnosis of brucellosis [1, 2]. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the prevalence of Mycobacterium bovis infection in cattle in Uganda [3, 4]. Retrospective study of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) was conducted to test the effectiveness of partial stamp out sleeping sickness (SOS) campaign cases in Otuboi sub-county, Kaberamaido District, Uganda between 2004 and 2010.

Transboundary animal diseases: a study was conducted to evaluate the vaccines and vaccination programs for the control of FMD in Uganda [5]. Spatial and temporal trends of contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia in Uganda were investigated. Immunoprotective potential of a Trypanosoma brucei hypothetical membrane protein Keg-50 were studied. A molecular epidemiological study was conducted on non-shiga toxin producing E.coli isolates from cattle [6]. Using Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST), this research characterized 43 non-O157 STEC isolates from cattle, and identified 10 sequence types that had not been reported. This observation underscored the fact that little is known about the genetic diversity of non-O157 STEC, especially those isolated from cattle.

Surveillance: two studies were conducted to assess disease surveillance systems currently used in Uganda in domesticated animals and wildlife, and humans.

Food safety: a longitudinal epidemiological and microbiological study assessed the food hygiene practices and microbial contamination of foods in managed food services in Uganda [7].

Training

Training students at MS level

The Africa-North American partnership developed a MS degree (MS International Infectious Disease Management) at Makerere University that serves students from Uganda and the East and Central Africa region. A total of 10 students completed their MS in Infectious Disease Management (MS-IDM). This was a joint program between Makerere University and North Dakota State University (NDSU). All the 10 students´ research and laboratory trainings related to transboundary animal diseases and zoonotic diseases. Their research is summarized in several peer review publications [1, 5, 6, 8]. Several MS students received fellowships that supported other MS programs related to transboundary animal diseases and zoonotic diseases and food security. One student completed an MS in Food Safety at Michigan State University (MSU). This student conducted a longitudinal epidemiological and microbiological study to assess the food hygiene practices and microbial contamination of foods in managed food services in Uganda. This student also put together a training manual on this subject called “Hygiene Practices and Basic Food Safety Measures.”

Training students at PhD level

One student from MSU conducted a comparative epidemiological study of brucellosis in humans, cattle, and goats in Uganda. This student worked jointly with other graduate students at Makerere University in the field and in the laboratory, and this interaction was expressed by the students as enriching. Five PhD students (junior faculty) from the five East and Central African universities received fellowships to conduct research related to (TADZ).

Targeted Courses

Training faculty, graduate and undergraduate students in the procedures and ethical conduct of research, grant writing, outbreak investigation, data analysis, presentation of findings and other

Short courses in a form of workshops were held over the years to faculty and students from East and Central African universities at Makerere University. Table 1 provides information on specific workshops that were given, and Table 2 provides information on the contribution of the USA universities in the workshop training. In addition, several graduate and undergraduate students from Makerere University spent 6 to 9 months at universities in North America (NDSU and University of Saskatchewan) to learn procedures and ethical conduct of research. Also, faculty from Washington State University and Makerere University jointly supervised undergraduate students in research.

Other Training Related Experiences

Study abroad course

The “Tropical Veterinary Medicine and One Health” [9] course was offered jointly with Makerere University in Uganda where students had an opportunity every summer to participate in several activities in communities. Since 2007, over 70 students from the USA have participated in this course, and from 2011-2015, with the support of USAID under the CIMTRADZ project, 40 students from Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and 50 students from Uganda participated in this course. Students participate in experiential learning in Eastern and Western Uganda, including three national parks (Kibale, Queen Elizabeth, Lake Mburo), where they learn about livestock, wildlife and human interactions and challenges of natural resources management. Kibale park is a biological field station for Makerere University, where students stay. Students also participate in outreach and service learning activities where they learn while addressing real life community problems using a One Health approach [10]. Examples in the past have included: vaccination of livestock against diseases, such as Peste de Petit Ruminants (PPR) and FMD.

Global competencies and multicultural learning environments: the Tropical Veterinary Medicine and One Health course exposes USA students to Ugandan students and/or East African culture and practices by immersion [11]. Students learn different systems of animal production, veterinary practice and public health and food safety practice in a tropical environment (which includes traditional ways of communal grazing and watering, cattle rustling and transboundary livestock movement), animal processing, and muscle food trading and use, all of which have significant implications for emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. Students visit various livestock farms (cattle-beef and dairy, pigs, sheep, goats, & poultry), slaughter houses, livestock markets, and conduct other hands-on activities, including simple physical examinations, sample collection and laboratory diagnostics. Additionally, students learn about different cultures, exposures that provide students with cultural competences, which will prepare them for the global workforce. The networks they develop turn into lifetime friendships that have and will serve them well in their future careers. Cultural exposure has been cited by several past students of Tropical Veterinary Medicine and One Health as one of the highlights of their experiences in the course.

One Health competencies of working in an interdisciplinary environment

The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) defines One Health as, “the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines-working locally, nationally, and globally - to attain optimal health for people, animals and our environment” [10]. Developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), and the World Health Organization (WHO) [12], One Health core competencies are skills and knowledge that all One Health professionals should possess. They incorporate the fundamental values of veterinary, human, and environmental health and include: management, communication, values and ethics, leadership, teamwork and collaboration, research, systems thinking, policy and advocacy, and cultural competency. The Tropical Veterinary Medicine & One Health course provided students with most of these One Health core competencies. Students were multidisciplinary and comprised various majors, including: Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Technology, Animal Sciences, Food Science, Nutrition and Health Promotion, Food Safety, Animal Production and Wild Life Management, Biomedical Laboratory Technology, Microbiology and Public Health.

Special Experiential Learning (SEL): SEL provides opportunities including leadership and policy development that facilitate entry into alternative veterinary careers that align directly with food animal medicine, government, food safety and security, research, and rural veterinary practice in underserved communities. The AVMA has encouraged veterinary graduates to engage in careers in alternative veterinary medicine. According to AVMA market surveys, only 12.2% and 13.4% of new graduates entered food or mixed animal-related practices immediately upon graduation from veterinary school in 2012 and 2013, respectively [13]. Less than 1% of new graduates in each of those years were employed by federal, state or tribal governmental agencies, excluding uniformed services: 1.3 and 1.9%, respectively [13].

Model African union simulation: alternative SEL experiences included engaging students in Model African Union (MAU) simulation as one innovative way of integrating social sciences in veterinary training while also fostering pedagogy of pragmatism based on African values. This unique learning experience is described by one of the students who participated in MAU in 2015 [14]; and internships at food industries in MS, including the poultry processing plants. Past MSU College of Veterinary Medicine (CVM) dual degree students have engaged in multiple varied externships, which are synonymous with SELs. Included in those experiences were time spent working with the Food Safety Inspection Service inspectors in poultry, beef and horse slaughter plants, working in Washington, DC in various headquarters´ divisional offices, spending time with the District Veterinary Medical Officers visiting plants and in the regional offices, completing six week Centers for Disease Control (CDC) externships (including working on Pertussis and Salmonella outbreaks), spending time with a Veterinarian who worked for a legal firm specializing in food animal issues, and conducting field research in food safety.

Policy development and leadership

Students participated in the State, National and/or Global Policy Courses offered at Washington State University [15]. These courses last one week and are multi-institutional with a thematic topic for discussion of “Climate Change and Livestock; the Science, Politics, and Beliefs and how they affect Food Security.” The National and Global Animal Health and Food Security Policy courses are conducted in Washington, DC. The course objectives are: 1) understand the governmental processes for creating laws and regulations associated with climate change, food security, trade, and animal health; 2) determine the roles the U.S. government, non-governmental organizations, professional bodies and trade organizations have in policy formulation; to distinguish among “scientific findings, personal and organizational beliefs and political agendas as policy is implemented”; 3) define the different ways policy is created and implemented; and 4) effectively communicate facts and opinions to a diverse audience. Upon completion of the course, participants are able to: comprehend the responsibilities of the national government for food security, trade, and animal health; know and differentiate the various strategies used by groups when informing and influencing policy makers; appreciate the roles played by the private sector in enhancing global food security and animal health systems; and be in position to create policy briefs and present them to policy makers. The State policy course is conducted at The State Capitol of one of the US states (such as Sacramento, California for 2015 course and St. Paul, Minnesota) and follows similar format to the National or Global course but at state level. These programs provide students with effective leadership and communication skills, and the technical and functional competences needed to meet the future needs of a globally interconnected, technologically advanced, and rapidly diversifying food and agricultural industry.

Short-term targeted training of junior faculty from Makerere University at USA Universities: one of the efficient ways of increasing research capabilities of current faculty is to provide opportunities for them to work with senior faculty in North American universities. Not only does this help the young faculty to develop the needed targeted skills, but also provides an opportunity to build professional relationships with their mentors. With this in mind, eight junior faculty members were selected to spend three months in the USA. Four spent time at MSU and the other four at Mississippi State University (MSSU) & NDSU, (Table 3, Table 4).

Training faculty and graduate students in presenting papers at National and International conferences and publishing papers in Peer-Reviewed Journals : two of the skills that were deemed critical for capacity building in research were the ability to prepare and present findings at National and International professional conferences, and to publish findings in peer-reviewed professional journals. Faculty and graduate students were trained in these two areas, and given the opportunity to implement what they learned.

Challenges

In any major project four major challenges were experienced: 1) Communication - The involvement of several universities from North America and East Africa clearly provides many opportunities for synergism in programs. However, one of the challenges in such context is communication. We tried different methods to communicate between the teams, including phones, skype, emails, and face to face at conferences whenever the opportunity was available. In the end, no single method was optimal, even though telephone and skype were the most used; 2) Instability of faculty - Due to shortage of senior faculty highly trained in research at Makerere University, these senior faculty were given administrative positions, thus creating a void. To improve the situation that resulted from instability of faculty at Makerere University, faculty from North American partner institutions were mobilized in handling some of the courses. Also, joint graduate student committees were formed to evaluate graduate students. Additionally, faculty from North America served as external examiners to PhD graduate students at Makerere University; 3) Understanding of the culture and logistics of conducting research in developing countries - One of the major challenges faced was the limited knowledge and appreciation by some North American universities of the culture and logistics of conducting research and training programs in developing countries. Clearly the understanding of these two issues would be helpful in implementing such programs; and 4) Budget management of funds - There was a need for African universities to understand and appreciate the rules and procedures of conducting research managed by North American universities, particularly as these rules relate to budget management and reporting of activities.

Impacts of the Research & Training Collaborations

There were a number of positive impacts that have resulted in this project. Major impacts include: Building strong relationships - Strong relationships have been created between faculty from North American and east African universities. These relations are the backbone of any future collaborations in research and training; Joint grants - As a result of the trainings on research, grant writing, and relationships built, joint research grants have been submitted and others are being worked on; Joint publications - A number of joint publications have already appeared in peer-reviewed journals, and many more have been submitted. What is most pleasing is to see that the first authors of most of these papers are either junior faculty members or graduate students; Successful completion of graduate studies - A number of students completed their theses under the tutelage of faculty from the CIMTRADZ project; Better understanding of budget management - Through the experiences on this project, there is increased knowledge and awareness of the need for prudent budget management of grants; Enhanced understanding of qualitative research methodology, and the application of servant leadership in community service learning - Veterinary students designed and conducted focus-group interviews about gender issues in COVAB. They took on the role of servant leaders and mentored public school kids; together they mobilized about 100 dogs and cats for rabies vaccinations; Greater appreciation of gender mainstreaming and women´s empowerment in institutional programs - The gender audit study stimulated 1) the formation of Higher Education Resource Services East Africa (HERS-EA), a women´s leadership Institute and 2) curriculum development - that included adding a gender & socioeconomics module in the MSc. IDM program; Increased number of faculty, particularly junior ones with training in research - The number of faculty, particularly the junior faculty, trained in research has increased, which is the foundation for capacity building in research. Several of these faculty currently serve as principal investigators of collaborative grants that have been submitted; Carnegie African Diaspora (CAD) Fellowships (http://www.iie.org/Programs/Carnegie) -The CAD is an excellent program and was very critical in cementing the research relationships built. Drs. John B. Kaneene, Margaret Khaitsa, and Florence Wakoko-Studstill were beneficiaries of the first CAD Fellowships awarded in summer 2014. CAD fellowships supported curriculum development, joint graduate student mentorship, and joint research.

Discussion     

Several lessons were learned from implementing partnership activities that could be useful to Higher Education Institutions exploring similar collaborative global health research activities. These include: 1) A consortium model approach enhanced the partnership success as each institution contributed different strengths to the project. For example, NDSU and Makerere University jointly developed a Master´s degree in International Infectious Disease Management and conducted student exchange; MSU provided leadership in Evaluation of Surveillance systems in East Africa and disease outbreak investigation and diagnostic pathology; and MSSU provided leadership in disease outbreak investigation, and International summer course training; 2) Professional long-term relationships developed based on mutual respect of each partner, as well as acquiring skills in in leadership and cultural sensitivity. These attributes were important in encouraging commitment of staff and faculty members from the USA and Africa partners; 3) Training of project personnel at the beginning of the project was important and ensured a clear understanding of expectations from all parties involved. For example, all Partnership Directors for the CIMTRADZ and 10 similar projects in sub-Saharan Africa were trained in Washington, DC and at a regional meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Also, training of project management personnel at host institutions in appropriate project reporting and accountability improved the quarterly reporting and evaluation of project activities. In addition, training assured a smoother working relationship with both the grant agency and the accounting personnel at the partner institutions; 4) Understanding the nature of host country ownership, leadership and overall institutional support for collaborations was crucial to assessing development challenges at the higher education institution and national levels. For example, the CIMTRADZ project aligned with the COVAB´s five year strategic plan (2010-2015) and the Uganda Poverty Alleviation Plan. Consequently, the Government of Uganda provided additional support to ensure success of the project; 5) Focusing on well-defined and mutually agreed upon problem-solving plans to develop institutional capacity and address national development challenges, while aligning with national and USAID strategic priorities was crucial. For example, initially a planning grant was awarded that supported a planning phase of 6 months. During this time, partners were able to consult with governments and USAID to develop a project that addressed needs according to priority of East Africans; 6) Open and effective communication (including face to face meetings) and the ability to work with interdisciplinary teams (One Health) to address shared common goals and deliver desired results. Regular conference calls were conducted to enable all partners (North America and East Africa) to communicate and address any issues of concern; 7) Developing a well-defined results framework, and monitoring an evaluation plan to track progress toward targets contributed to project success. With support from Higher Education for Development (HED), detailed partnership implementation plans were developed and tracked using Partnership Reporting Implementation & Monitoring Engine (PRIME); 8) The following experiences added value to the partnership and sustainability of the consortium: a) leveraging funds from different sources. Additional funds obtained from parallel projects ensured sustainability of the relationship and outcomes of the partnership program, b) involving and engaging students and faculty members from universities in the East and Central African region in spite of limited funding, and c) engaging with African Union; 9) Finally, recognizing the value of synergistic activities and working with other institutions/agencies/organizations with similar goals was important. The partnership synergistic activities with entities, such as USAID Emerging Pandemic Threats - RESPOND program and the USDA-Foreign Animal Service (FAS) Borlaug Fellowship Program, contributed to project success. Such partnerships resulted in leverage of additional funds that expanded the breadth of project activities. And finally, patience and maintaining a positive attitude as various challenges faced were tackled were vital in maintaining productive working relationships.

Conclusion     

A multifaceted interdisciplinary program was implemented to address research and training needs relevant to trans-boundary and zoonotic diseases. The Program involved universities from high income and low income countries and proved to be efficient and mutually beneficial. Several lessons were learned that would useful to future similar programs.

Competing interests     

The authors declare no competing interests.

Authors´ contributions     

All authors contributed to writing the article, reviewed several drafts, and approval of the version to be published. Additionally, all authors were collaborators on the project and played a significant role in its implementation. All authors have read and agreed to the final version of this manuscript and have equally contributed to its content and to the management of the case.

Acknowledgments     

We thank faculty and scientists from several institutions including; Kansas State University, University of Pretoria, University of Minnesota, Africa Epidemiology Network, Conservation through Public Health, and Terra Nuova. Funding for the research and training was provided by USAID through Higher Education for Development.

Tables     

Table 1: workshops conducted by faculty from US and East and Central at Makerere University, 2012 to 2015

Table 2: examples of topics covered during workshops and short term trainings held targeting professional development of faculty and staff at partner institutions

Table 3: targeted short-term training of Makerere Junior Faculty at Michigan State University

Table 4: targeted short-term training of Makerere Junior Faculty at Mississippi State University and North Dakota State University

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